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In some of the Earth’s most remote and inaccessible regions, there are traces of humankind.
There’s plastic in the Mariana Trench. Mount Everest looks like a garbage dump. And the Arctic Ocean is full of ‘forever chemicals’ known as PFAS.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances – PFAS – are a group of thousands of synthetic chemicals.
They came into vogue in the 1950s and started appearing everywhere. One common example is perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which was used to produce Teflon.
Martyn Kirk is an epidemiologist at the Australian National University. He was the principal investigator of the PFAS Health Study, which ran between 2016 and 2021.
“They were used as anti-stick coatings, anti-stain coatings, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, fast food, packaging – all sorts of things,” says Martyn.
“Basically, the entire population of industrialised countries is exposed.”
Caption: ANU epidemiologist Martyn Kirk
Credit: Martyn Kirk
PARTICULARLY PERSISTENT
As the ‘forever chemicals’ name implies, PFAS are fairly non-reactive or inert.
Typically, organic molecules are made of carbon and hydrogen atoms. But PFAS are made of carbon and fluorine atoms – and the bond between those atoms is much, much stronger.
This characteristic makes them particularly persistent.
Scientists are unsure how long they persist in the environment. Some estimates suggest they can take longer than a decade to clear the human body.
Their persistence means they can also accumulate in the body over time.
Scientific studies have demonstrated that high levels of exposure to PFAS can result in a host of negative health effects.
THE HEALTH EFFECTS
Practically every time scientists go looking for PFAS in human bodies, they find them.
This seems quite alarming but our understanding of the effects of PFAS continues to evolve as more work is done.
Several high-profile legal cases have put PFAS in the spotlight.
The towns of Williamtown in New South Wales, Katherine in the Northern Territory and Oakey in Queensland received $212 million compensation from the Australian Government for property value loss and distress in 2021.
A BIOLOGICAL EFFECT
The PFAS Health Study, which Martyn led in 2016, reviewed the medical literature around PFAS and human health and investigated how the chemicals affected those three regional communities.
It examined the PFAS levels in the blood of residents who had been exposed to PFAS via groundwater contamination and compared these results with uncontaminated communities.
Caption: The 3D chemical structure of PFOS, a type of PFAS
Credit: Martyn Kirk
The study showed levels of some PFAS in the blood of residents in the affected communities were higher than those in comparison communities.
In some instances, they were also associated with higher blood cholesterol levels.
“These chemicals clearly do have a biological effect on humans,” says Martyn.
“When we test people, we can find evidence of low levels in their blood. Those levels have been coming down over time.”
PFAS GET EVERYWHERE
The study was consistent with previous findings that have revealed the extent to which PFAS have infiltrated human bodies.
You can find PFAS in lungs, testes, the liver and kidneys. Australian researchers recently found PFAS in human brains, but those health effects are yet to be evaluated.
Various agencies and environmental organisations point to a collection of scientific studies that suggest PFAS may play a role in decreasing fertility, increasing the risk of cancer, affecting the immune response and interfering with hormones.
As science seeks more answers about how PFAS affect human health, most guidance is precautionary.
“The consensus is it’s not as clear cut as something like asbestos and mesothelioma,” says Martyn.
DO CHANGES GO FAR ENOUGH?
Australia has made significant changes in the way it handles different PFAS over the last few years.
Though we don’t have manufacturing facilities, we can be exposed to the chemicals via food packaging, clothing and carpets.
Caption: PFAS can be found in food packaging.
Credit: Debbi Smirnoff / GETTY IMAGES
Historically, firefighting training at numerous sites such as airports and Australian Defence Force (ADF) bases released a lot of PFAS into the environment.
In WA, Perth and Jandakot Airports used firefighting foams containing PFAS.
Testing at Jandakot Airport identified the chemicals in the groundwater of public land at the airport’s northwest boundary.
Some of the concentrations detected PFAS at “above-acceptable” levels, according to the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Other WA sites include HMAS Stirling and various ADF sites where firefighting foams were used. Management plans are in place as Defence investigates the pollution.
“SLOW-MOVING DISASTERS”
The PFAS Health Study provided a qualitative assessment of people living in PFAS-polluted communities.
Martyn says the study showed “a very strong psychological effect” for residents in affected communities, though this wasn’t associated with PFAS blood levels.
He says the effects of contamination go beyond health.
“We call these types of phenomena slow-moving disasters,” says Martyn.
“They’re not only physical health related, they’re also mental health related.”
“They’re also [related to] property values. They’re also lifestyle changes – like you can no longer have your own backyard chickens and eat their eggs.”
The health risks are greatest for those in communities where PFAS are present in the water supply or soil.
Caption: Found in the foams of many products, PFAS are persistent in the environment.
Credit: Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
As our understanding deepens, we are reassessing our relationship with forever chemicals.
A COSTLY CLEAN-UP
Australia’s National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) is expected to release final guidance on the acceptable level of four types of PFAS in drinking water in April.
As scientific evidence continues to accumulate, the NHMRC has reduced the acceptable level of different PFAS in our water supply, bringing it in line with regulations around the world.
The Australian Government has been working since 2002 to reduce how much PFAS are used in Australia.
It has banned the import and use of PFAS from July 2025. However, it only applies to three types of PFAS: PFOA, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS).
Some experts say we need to go further. The PFAS group includes so many chemicals and there’s concern not enough are being banned.
Stuart Khan is a water quality expert at the University of Sydney.
Stuart told a Senate Select Committee investigating PFAS in January he would like to see a wider range of PFAS prohibited in Australia.
He says the clean-up cost will be immense.
“PFAS pollution threatens to cost Australians billions of dollars every year,” says Stuart.
“We must make the polluter pay.”
